Early Medieval India (c. 600–1200 CE)
Regional Kingdoms, Samantas, Land Grants, Temples and the Growth of Regional India
Early medieval India was not simply a period between the ancient and medieval ages. It was a time when the political and social map of India changed significantly.
After the decline of the Gupta Empire and the death of Harshavardhana, no single dynasty could maintain lasting control over a large part of the subcontinent. Instead, powerful regional kingdoms emerged in Bengal, Rajasthan, central India, the Deccan and South India.
At the same time, agriculture spread into new areas, land grants became more common, local chiefs gained political importance, temples became major social and economic institutions, and regional languages and cultures developed more strongly.
For this reason, historians today generally avoid describing the period simply as an age of decline. It is better understood as a period of regionalisation, agrarian expansion and the reorganisation of political power.
Political Change after Harsha
After Harsha's death in the seventh century, northern India did not immediately come under another large empire.
Several regional powers gradually emerged.
In northern and eastern India, important dynasties included:
- Palas
- Gurjara-Pratiharas
- later Rajput dynasties
In the Deccan:
- Chalukyas
- Rashtrakutas
In South India:
- Pallavas
- Cholas
- Pandyas and other regional powers
Political power in these kingdoms was often shared among the king, subordinate rulers, landed elites and local chiefs.
This is where the Samanta system becomes important.
The Samanta System
The term Samanta had changed in meaning over time.
By the sixth and seventh centuries, it was increasingly used for defeated or subordinate chiefs who accepted the authority of a more powerful ruler. IGNOU notes that Samantas could owe tribute and military support to their overlord and became an important part of the political structure of the period.
A Samanta could:
- pay tribute to the king,
- provide troops during war,
- attend the royal court,
- administer territory,
- exercise considerable local authority.
This arrangement made it easier for a ruler to control a large area without administering every locality directly.
But there was a problem.
When central authority weakened, powerful Samantas could become independent rulers themselves.
This is an important feature of early medieval politics:
A subordinate chief could eventually become the founder of a new dynasty.
The rise of several regional kingdoms can be understood partly through this process.
Land Grants and the Changing Countryside
Land grants had existed earlier, but they became much more numerous from the Gupta and Post-Gupta periods onward.
Kings granted land or villages to:
- Brahmanas,
- temples,
- monasteries,
- religious institutions,
- and occasionally other beneficiaries.
Some grants transferred not only land but also rights connected with revenue and local administration. IGNOU records the increasing transfer of administrative and fiscal rights through grants from the Gupta period onward.
Three terms are especially important.
Brahmadeya
Land or a village granted to Brahmanas.
Devadana
Land granted to a deity or temple.
Agrahara
A settlement or revenue-free grant commonly associated with Brahmana beneficiaries.
These terms did not have exactly the same usage in every region and period, so they should not be treated as perfectly interchangeable.
Why Did Kings Make Land Grants?
Land grants served several purposes.
They could reward loyal supporters and religious institutions. They could also encourage new settlements and bring previously forested or marginal areas under cultivation.
The grants helped rulers extend their cultural and political influence into regions where direct administration was difficult.
They also strengthened royal legitimacy. Supporting temples, monasteries and Brahmanas allowed kings to present themselves as protectors of religious and social order.
So land grants had two sides.
They could promote:
- agricultural expansion,
- settlement,
- political integration.
But they could also transfer:
- revenue,
- local authority,
- economic power
to intermediaries outside the direct control of the king.
This double effect is central to understanding early medieval India.
The Debate on Indian Feudalism
Historian R. S. Sharma used the idea of Indian feudalism to explain important changes in this period.
In simplified form, his argument was:
Land grants → powerful intermediaries → weaker direct relation between king and cultivator → greater dependence of peasants
He also connected the process with:
- forced labour,
- decline of some towns,
- reduction in long-distance trade in certain areas,
- increasing localisation of economic life.
This interpretation was extremely influential.
However, later historians questioned whether one single feudal model could explain the whole of India.
Trade did not disappear everywhere. Some regions saw active ports, merchant networks and the growth of new urban centres. IGNOU itself presents the feudal model alongside alternative approaches that emphasise political integration and regional state formation rather than simply the breakdown of a centralised state.
A good UPSC answer should therefore avoid saying:
Early medieval India became completely feudal.
A better conclusion is:
Land grants and intermediaries became increasingly important, but their effects varied considerably from one region to another.
Agricultural Expansion
One of the most important changes of the period was the spread of agriculture into new areas.
Forests were cleared, villages expanded and irrigation facilities developed.
This process was particularly important because agricultural expansion increased:
- food production,
- settlement,
- land revenue,
- political control.
Brahmadeya settlements and temples often played an important role in organising new agrarian areas.
But this was not simply a story of Brahmanical culture replacing local traditions.
When tribal and local communities entered expanding agrarian societies, their own customs and deities could also influence the wider religious tradition.
Early medieval society was therefore created through interaction as well as hierarchy.
Palas
The Pala dynasty emerged in eastern India in the eighth century.
Its founder was Gopala.
His successors Dharmapala and Devapala greatly expanded Pala influence.
The Palas ruled large parts of Bengal and Bihar and became major patrons of Buddhism. NIOS notes their support for Buddhist monasteries and identifies Dharmapala with the foundation of Vikramashila, near Bhagalpur in Bihar.
Important centres associated with the wider Pala age included:
- Nalanda
- Vikramashila
- Odantapuri
The Pala period is therefore particularly important for Bihar history as well as the history of Buddhism.
Gurjara-Pratiharas
The Gurjara-Pratiharas became a major power in western and northern India.
One of their most important rulers was Mihira Bhoja.
They competed for control of northern India, especially Kannauj, with the Palas and Rashtrakutas.
The Pratiharas were also important in resisting Arab expansion from the north-western frontier during the earlier phase of their rise.
Rashtrakutas
The Rashtrakutas replaced the Chalukyas as the major power of the Deccan in the eighth century.
Their important rulers included:
- Dantidurga
- Dhruva
- Govinda III
- Amoghavarsha I
- Krishna I
Manyakheta became their major capital.
The Rashtrakutas repeatedly intervened in northern politics and competed for Kannauj.
They were also major patrons of art and literature.
The spectacular Kailasa Temple at Ellora is associated particularly with Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna I.
The Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj
From the eighth century onward, the three leading powers—
Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas
—competed for influence over Kannauj.
IGNOU describes this as the Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj.
Why was Kannauj important?
It stood in the fertile Gangetic region, controlled important routes and carried enormous political prestige after the age of Harsha.
Control of Kannauj therefore meant more than possession of one city. It symbolised a claim to political superiority in northern India.
No single dynasty was able to permanently dominate the entire region.
Rajput States
By the later early medieval period, several ruling lineages usually grouped under the broad label Rajputs became important in northern and western India.
Important dynasties included:
- Chahamanas or Chauhans
- Paramaras
- Chandellas
- Gahadavalas
- Chaulukyas/Solankis
These kingdoms built strong regional political centres and patronised temples, literature and local elites.
The Chandellas, for example, are closely associated with the temples of Khajuraho.
The Rajput states were not one united political bloc. They competed with one another, formed alliances and fought wars just like other regional powers.
This is important when studying the later Turkish expansion into northern India: political rivalry was one factor, but it should not be treated as the only explanation for Turkish military success.
Pallavas of Kanchi
The Pallavas were one of the most important early medieval dynasties of South India.
Their capital was Kanchipuram.
Important rulers included:
- Mahendravarman I
- Narasimhavarman I
- Narasimhavarman II
The Pallavas are especially important for the history of architecture.
At Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram, Pallava patronage produced rock-cut caves, monolithic rathas, giant sculptural reliefs and structural temples. UNESCO dates the major group of monuments mainly to the seventh and eighth centuries.
This development shows an important architectural transition:
Rock-cut caves → monolithic monuments → structural stone temples
Pallava rulers also patronised Sanskrit and Tamil cultural traditions.
Mahendravarman I himself is associated with the Sanskrit play Mattavilasa Prahasana.
Chalukyas of Badami
The early Chalukyas ruled mainly from Vatapi, or Badami.
Their most famous ruler was Pulakeshin II.
He successfully checked Harsha's expansion towards the Deccan.
The Chalukyas and Pallavas were major rivals. Narasimhavarman I later invaded Chalukya territory and captured Vatapi.
Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal became important centres for the development of temple architecture.
These sites are particularly valuable because they show experimentation with forms that would later become associated with both northern and southern temple traditions.
Rise of the Imperial Cholas
The revival of Chola power began in the ninth century with Vijayalaya.
The dynasty reached its greatest power under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I.
Rajaraja I
Rajaraja expanded Chola power in South India and Sri Lanka.
His reign is also remembered for the construction of the great Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur.
UNESCO describes it as the first great example in the sequence of monumental Chola temples and associates its construction with Rajaraja I.
Rajendra I
Rajendra continued Chola expansion.
He campaigned in northern India and adopted the title associated with bringing the waters of the Ganga to his new capital, Gangaikondacholapuram.
In 1025 CE, his forces also attacked the maritime kingdom of Srivijaya in Southeast Asia.
It is better to describe this as a successful overseas military expedition or raid rather than as the permanent establishment of a Chola empire over Southeast Asia.
Chola Local Administration
Chola inscriptions provide unusually detailed evidence about local institutions.
Important bodies included:
Ur
Assembly of an ordinary village.
Sabha or Mahasabha
Assembly associated particularly with Brahmadeya settlements and prominent Brahmana landholders.
Nagaram
An association connected with merchants and towns.
NCERT material notes that Brahmadeya villages were managed through Sabhas, while associations of traders known as Nagarams could also perform administrative functions.
The famous Uttaramerur inscriptions, particularly those associated with the reign of Parantaka I, describe qualifications, disqualifications and the selection of members for village committees.
Names of eligible persons could be written on palm-leaf tickets and drawn from a pot—the well-known Kudavolai system.
But there is an important caution.
This was not modern universal democracy.
Participation was shaped by:
- property qualifications,
- social status,
- local hierarchy,
- eligibility rules.
So the correct interpretation is:
Chola administration combined strong royal authority with sophisticated local institutions.
Temples as Economic and Social Institutions
The temple was one of the most important institutions of early medieval society.
A large temple could own land and receive substantial donations.
It could employ:
- priests,
- accountants,
- artisans,
- musicians,
- dancers,
- guards,
- craftsmen,
- attendants.
Temples also became centres of:
- festivals,
- cultural activity,
- education,
- redistribution of resources.
The great Chola temples show how architecture, political authority and religious patronage could come together. UNESCO describes the Chola temple tradition as a major achievement in architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze casting.
So temples should not be studied only under “Art and Culture”. They are also important for understanding economy and society.
Trade, Merchant Guilds and the Indian Ocean
Long-distance trade did not disappear during the early medieval period.
South India, especially, was connected with the Indian Ocean commercial world.
Important merchant organisations included names such as:
- Ayyavole / Ainnurruvar
- Manigramam
- Anjuvannam
These merchant groups operated across regions and, in some cases, overseas.
The Chola expedition against Srivijaya should also be understood against the wider background of Bay of Bengal trade.
This is why the older idea of a complete commercial collapse needs qualification.
Some old towns declined, but other commercial centres and ports developed.
The pattern was one of regional economic change, not universal decline.
Society and the Growth of Jatis
Early medieval society became increasingly differentiated.
The theoretical four-fold Varna model cannot fully describe social reality.
There were numerous Jatis linked with:
- occupation,
- locality,
- lineage,
- migration,
- incorporation of tribal communities.
The expansion of agriculture brought many new communities into settled agrarian society.
This process could create social integration, but it could also produce new inequalities.
Brahmanas, landed groups and dominant peasant communities became influential in many regions.
The exact pattern varied greatly between Bengal, Rajasthan, the Deccan and Tamil country.
Bhakti and Religious Change
Early medieval India was also a major period in the development of devotional religion.
In Tamil country, the Nayanars were primarily devotees of Shiva, while the Alvars were devotees of Vishnu.
Their hymns were composed in Tamil and helped bring devotional religion into a strong regional cultural setting.
Bhakti did not necessarily remove caste or social hierarchy, but it changed religious expression by giving greater importance to:
- personal devotion,
- pilgrimage,
- temple worship,
- vernacular religious poetry.
Buddhism continued to receive important support under the Palas, while Jainism remained influential in western and southern India.
Religious change was therefore not a simple replacement of one tradition by another.
Growth of Regional Cultures
Perhaps the most lasting development of early medieval India was the strengthening of regional cultural traditions.
Tamil and Kannada literature developed strongly, while Telugu, Bengali and other regional literary cultures grew over time.
Sanskrit continued to be a major language of:
- court culture,
- inscriptions,
- political ideas,
- religious scholarship.
Regional languages did not simply replace Sanskrit.
Instead, Sanskritic and regional traditions interacted with one another.
This is why early medieval India is so important in understanding the making of India's later regional identities.
How Should We Understand Early Medieval India?
Historians have offered different interpretations.
One older approach emphasised:
fragmentation and decline.
R. S. Sharma's feudalism model emphasised:
land grants, intermediaries and increasing peasant dependence.
Other historians have emphasised:
regional state formation, agrarian expansion and political integration.
These interpretations do not need to be treated as completely mutually exclusive.
Different processes could occur at the same time and in different regions.
A balanced conclusion would be:
Early medieval India was neither simply a Dark Age nor merely a continuation of the ancient period. It was an age of political regionalisation, agricultural expansion, changing social relations, temple-centred institutions and the growth of distinct regional cultures.
That is the central argument to remember for Mains.
UPSC Previous Year Questions
I have replaced the older PYQ selection with the latest five genuinely relevant questions. UPSC's official archive confirms the respective Civil Services papers; the question wording below was cross-checked against paper reproductions.
PYQ 1 — UPSC Prelims 2025
Question
Who among the following led a successful military campaign against the kingdom of Srivijaya, the powerful maritime State, which ruled the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the neighbouring islands?
A. Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta)
B. Prataparudra (Kakatiya)
C. Rajendra I (Chola)
D. Vishnuvardhana (Hoysala)
Answer: C. Rajendra I (Chola)
Explanation
Rajendra I launched the famous overseas campaign against Srivijaya around 1025 CE.
Amoghavarsha was a Rashtrakuta ruler known especially for cultural patronage.
Prataparudra belonged to the Kakatiyas.
Vishnuvardhana was a major Hoysala ruler.
The proper historical interpretation is that Rajendra's campaign demonstrated Chola naval reach and involvement in the Bay of Bengal world; it should not automatically be described as permanent Chola rule over Southeast Asia. The question and answer are reproduced consistently across 2025 paper analyses.
PYQ 2 — UPSC Mains 2024, GS Paper I
Question
“Estimate the contribution of Pallavas of Kanchi for the development of art and literature of South India.”
10 Marks | 150 Words
Answer Approach
Begin with the Pallavas as an important bridge in the cultural history of South India.
For art, discuss:
- rock-cut cave temples,
- monolithic rathas,
- Mahabalipuram reliefs,
- development of structural temples,
- early foundations of Dravida architecture.
For literature, mention:
- Sanskrit patronage,
- Mahendravarman I and Mattavilasa Prahasana,
- growth of Tamil devotional traditions.
Conclude that Pallava innovations created a foundation on which later Chola art developed.
The wording is consistently reported for UPSC GS-I 2024.
PYQ 3 — UPSC Mains 2024, GS Paper I
Question
“Though the great Cholas are no more, yet their name is still remembered with great pride because of their highest achievements in the domain of art and architecture.” Comment.
15 Marks | 250 Words
Answer Approach
The answer should concentrate on cultural achievement rather than narrating Chola political history.
Discuss:
- development of monumental Dravida temples,
- Brihadisvara at Thanjavur,
- Gangaikondacholapuram,
- Airavatesvara at Darasuram,
- Chola bronze sculpture,
- Nataraja,
- murals,
- temple inscriptions and cultural institutions.
UNESCO treats the three Great Living Chola Temples as outstanding examples of Chola architecture and Tamil civilisation.
PYQ 4 — UPSC Mains 2022, GS Paper I
Question
How will you explain that medieval Indian temple sculptures represent the social life of those days?
10 Marks | 150 Words
Answer Approach
Do not turn the answer into a description of temple architecture.
Use sculpture as historical evidence for:
- dress and ornaments,
- music and dance,
- occupations,
- military activity,
- domestic scenes,
- gender relations,
- festivals and religious practices.
The central argument should be:
Medieval temple sculptures are not only religious images; they are also visual records of contemporary society.
The wording and 150-word, 10-mark format are confirmed in reproductions of the 2022 GS-I paper.
PYQ 5 — UPSC Prelims 2020
Question
Consider the following events in the history of India:
- Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja
- Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman I
- Establishment of Chola power by Parantaka I
- Pala dynasty founded by Gopala
What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time?
A. 2–1–4–3
B. 3–1–4–2
C. 2–4–1–3
D. 3–4–1–2
Answer: C. 2–4–1–3
Explanation
The order is:
Mahendravarman I → Gopala → Mihira Bhoja → Parantaka I
Mahendravarman I belongs to the early seventh century.
Gopala founded the Pala dynasty in the eighth century.
Mihira Bhoja ruled in the ninth century.
Parantaka I ruled in the early tenth century.
This is a very useful PYQ because it shows that UPSC expects cross-regional chronology, not isolated dynasty preparation.
Bonus High-Yield PYQ — UPSC Prelims 2016
This one is older, but it is too useful to omit.
Question
In the context of the history of India, consider the following pairs:
| Term | Description |
|---|---|
| 1. Eripatti | Land, revenue from which was set apart for maintenance of the village tank |
| 2. Taniyurs | Villages donated to a single Brahmin or a group of Brahmins |
| 3. Ghatikas | Colleges generally attached to temples |
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 2
B. 3 only
C. 2 and 3
D. 1 and 3
Answer: D. 1 and 3
Explanation
Eripatti was land whose revenue was earmarked for maintaining a village irrigation tank.
Taniyur was not simply a Brahmana-donation village. NIOS describes a Taniyur as a large settlement significant enough to function as a separate unit; Brahmana gift villages were generally called Brahmadeya.
Ghatikas were centres of learning, often connected with temples.
This is exactly the kind of terminology UPSC likes to use for elimination.
Practice MCQs
1. With reference to the Samanta system, consider the following statements:
- Samantas could provide military assistance to an overlord.
- Every Samanta was directly appointed as a salaried official by the king.
- Some subordinate chiefs could later emerge as independent rulers.
Which of the statements are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 1 and 3 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
Statements 1 and 3 are correct.
Samantas were not simply salaried civil servants. Many were subordinate chiefs who retained local authority.
2. Consider the following pairs:
- Brahmadeya — land granted to Brahmanas
- Devadana — land associated with a deity or temple
- Sabha — assembly associated especially with Brahmadeya settlements
- Nagaram — merchant association
How many pairs are correctly matched?
A. One
B. Two
C. Three
D. Four
Answer: D
All four are broadly correct.
3. Which three powers were the principal participants in the Tripartite Struggle?
A. Pallavas, Cholas and Chalukyas
B. Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas
C. Cholas, Rashtrakutas and Pandyas
D. Palas, Chahamanas and Cholas
Answer: B
The struggle centred on political influence over Kannauj.
4. Which statement about early medieval temples is most accurate?
A. They served only ritual purposes.
B. They could hold land and employ a large number of people.
C. They were completely independent of royal patronage.
D. They played no role in local economic activity.
Answer: B
Large temples could function simultaneously as religious, social, cultural and economic institutions.
5. Which statement provides the best interpretation of early medieval Indian economy?
A. Long-distance trade completely disappeared throughout India.
B. Every region experienced exactly the same feudal transformation.
C. Landed intermediaries became important, but commercial and agrarian patterns differed across regions.
D. Land grants had no political consequences.
Answer: C
This is the most balanced interpretation and reflects the historiographical debate.
Mains Practice Questions
- “Early medieval India was an age of regionalisation rather than simply an age of political fragmentation.” Discuss.
- Examine the role of land grants in the transformation of polity and society in early medieval India.
- Discuss the nature of the Samanta system. Did it weaken political authority or help integrate regional states?
- Explain the role of temples in the economy and society of early medieval India.
- Critically examine the debate on Indian feudalism. Can the model be applied uniformly to the whole subcontinent?
Model Answer 1
“Early medieval India was an age of regionalisation rather than simply political fragmentation.” Discuss.
The period between roughly the seventh and twelfth centuries saw the decline of large imperial formations and the rise of regional kingdoms such as the Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Pallavas and Cholas. Earlier historians often described this development mainly as political fragmentation.
However, the rise of regional kingdoms also reflected deeper processes of state formation. Agriculture spread into new areas, while land grants helped bring local communities and frontier regions into expanding agrarian systems. Samantas and local chiefs became important links between rulers and rural society.
Temples developed as centres of religion, landholding, employment and cultural activity. At the same time, regional languages, Bhakti traditions and distinctive architectural styles became more prominent.
Political authority was certainly more dispersed than under a large empire, but new political and cultural structures were also being created.
Therefore, early medieval India should be understood as a period of regional state formation and social transformation, not merely as the breakdown of earlier empires.
Model Answer 2
Examine the significance of land grants in early medieval India.
Land grants became increasingly important in India from the Gupta period onward and acquired wider political and economic significance during the early medieval centuries.
Kings granted land and villages to Brahmanas, temples and other beneficiaries. Such grants could help bring new land under cultivation, establish settlements and extend royal influence into frontier regions. Religious grants also strengthened the legitimacy of rulers.
However, many grants transferred revenue rights and sometimes elements of local authority to beneficiaries. R. S. Sharma viewed the growth of such intermediaries as a major feature of Indian feudalism and linked it with increasing peasant dependence and political decentralisation.
Later historians have questioned whether this process had the same consequences everywhere. In some regions, land grants coexisted with active trade, towns and strong political states.
Thus, land grants were neither simply signs of decline nor merely religious donations. They were important instruments of agrarian expansion, social change and redistribution of political power.
Quick Revision
| Topic | Remember |
|---|---|
| Early medieval India | Roughly 600–1200 CE |
| Samanta | Subordinate chief/feudatory |
| Brahmadeya | Grant to Brahmanas |
| Devadana | Grant to temple/deity |
| Tripartite Struggle | Pala–Pratihara–Rashtrakuta |
| Main centre | Kannauj |
| Pala founder | Gopala |
| Pala Buddhist centre | Vikramashila |
| Major Pratihara ruler | Mihira Bhoja |
| Rashtrakuta capital | Manyakheta |
| Kailasa, Ellora | Rashtrakuta, especially Krishna I |
| Pallava capital | Kanchipuram |
| Chalukya capital | Vatapi/Badami |
| Imperial Chola revival | Vijayalaya |
| Brihadisvara | Rajaraja I |
| Srivijaya expedition | Rajendra I, c. 1025 CE |
| Sabha | Brahmadeya assembly |
| Ur | Ordinary village assembly |
| Nagaram | Merchant/town association |
| Uttaramerur | Chola local committees |
| Indian feudalism | Strongly associated with R. S. Sharma |
The chapter in one sentence
Early medieval India was the period in which political authority became increasingly regional while agrarian expansion, land grants, local elites, temples and trade helped create new states and cultural identities.
Reliable Sources
IGNOU — Early Medieval Polities in North India
IGNOU — State in Early Medieval India
IGNOU — Land, Revenue Systems and Agrarian Relations, c. 700–1200 CE
NIOS — India Between AD 750–1200
NCERT/SATHEE — Kings and Kingdoms: Cholas and Local Administration
UNESCO — Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram
UNESCO — Great Living Chola Temples
UPSC — Official Previous Question Papers
